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GNDU Question Paper-2022

Ba/BSc 5

Semester

POLITICAL SCIENCE

[Comparative Political Systems (UK and USA)]

Time Allowed: 3 Hrs. Maximum Marks: 100

Note: Attempt Five questions in all, selecting at least One question from each section. The

Fifth question may be attempted from any section.

SECTION-A

1. Discuss the meaning, scope and utility of Comparative Government and Politics.

2. Critically analyse the System Approach of Almond & Powell.

SECTION-B

3. What do you mean by Bill of Rights? Explain the various rights granted to US citizens in

the Constitution.

4. Explain the powers and functions of King of England.

SECTION-C

5. Discuss the law making procedure in US Congress.

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6. What do you mean by Pressure Groups ? What is their role in British Political System?

SECTION-D

7. Discuss the organization and functions of US Supreme Court with special reference to its

power of Judicial Review.

8. British Political system is Unitary system. Elaborate it.

GNDU Answer Paper-2022

Ba/BSc 5

Semester

POLITICAL SCIENCE

[Comparative Political Systems (UK and USA)]

Time Allowed: 3 Hrs. Maximum Marks: 100

Note: Attempt Five questions in all, selecting at least One question from each section. The

Fifth question may be attempted from any section.

SECTION-A

1. Discuss the meaning, scope and utility of Comparative Government and Politics.

Ans: Introduction

Comparative Government and Politics is a field of political science that focuses on studying

and comparing different political systems, institutions, and behaviors across countries. It

helps us understand how governments function in different regions of the world and

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provides insights into the similarities and differences between political systems. By

comparing governments, scholars and students can gain a broader understanding of how

different factors like culture, economy, and history affect the functioning of political

systems.

This approach is crucial for anyone who wants to understand the variety of political systems

that exist, and how they respond to issues like democracy, authoritarianism, social justice,

economic growth, and international relations.

Meaning of Comparative Government and Politics

The term "Comparative Government and Politics" is made up of two parts:

• Government refers to the institutions and organizations through which a state

exercises power.

• Politics refers to the activities related to the governance of a country, including the

debate or conflict among individuals or parties having or hoping to achieve power.

When we study Comparative Government, we look at how these institutions (like the

executive, legislative, and judicial branches) function in different countries. On the other

hand, Comparative Politics deals with analyzing the actual political processes, how policies

are formed, and how citizens interact with their governments.

Scope of Comparative Government and Politics

The scope of Comparative Government and Politics is broad and can be divided into several

key areas:

1. Comparison of Political Systems

One of the most fundamental areas of comparative politics is to study the different political

systems that exist around the world, such as democracies, monarchies, authoritarian

regimes, and hybrid systems. For example, the United States is a federal democracy, while

the United Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy. Studying both systems helps us

understand how power is distributed, how elections are conducted, and how citizens

participate in governance.

2. Comparison of Political Institutions

Comparative politics looks at how different countries' political institutions function, such as

the executive, legislative, and judiciary branches of government. For example, while both

the UK and the US have a legislature, the US Congress has two houses (House of

Representatives and Senate), while the UK Parliament also has two houses (House of

Commons and House of Lords). The powers and roles of these institutions differ, and

comparing them allows us to see how each system works and influences politics.

3. Constitutional Systems

The study of constitutional systems falls under comparative government. This includes how

constitutions are framed, what rights and responsibilities they grant to citizens, and how

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they limit government power. Constitutions vary greatly across the world. The US

Constitution is written and codified, whereas the UK operates under an uncodified

constitution made up of statutes, conventions, and traditions.

4. Political Culture and Behavior

Political culture refers to the values, attitudes, and beliefs that citizens of a country hold

towards their government and political system. Comparative politics examines how

different countries' political cultures shape their politics. For example, in some countries,

citizens may have a higher degree of trust in government, while in others, there may be a

stronger culture of protest and resistance. Understanding political behavior, such as how

people vote, what political ideologies they support, and how they express political opinions,

is also a major part of comparative politics.

5. Electoral Systems

Another major area in comparative government is the study of electoral systems—how

leaders are chosen in different countries. For instance, the US has a presidential system

where the president is directly elected by citizens, while the UK has a parliamentary system

where the Prime Minister is the leader of the majority party in Parliament. Comparative

studies allow us to see the advantages and disadvantages of each system.

6. Public Policy

Comparative politics also looks at public policy—how governments make decisions on issues

like healthcare, education, and foreign policy. Comparing different approaches to policy-

making can reveal why some policies work well in one country but not in another. For

example, comparing healthcare systems in the US, UK, and other countries helps

policymakers understand different ways to provide services to citizens.

7. Development and Modernization

Comparative politics often examines the role of economic development and modernization

in shaping political systems. As countries grow economically, their political systems often

change in response. For instance, many scholars have studied how rapid modernization in

countries like China and India affects their politics and governance structures.

8. International Influence and Globalization

With globalization, countries' political systems and policies are increasingly influenced by

international organizations like the United Nations, World Bank, or World Trade

Organization. Comparative politics helps us understand how countries adapt their internal

policies in response to external pressures and global events, such as economic crises or

environmental changes.

Utility of Comparative Government and Politics

The utility of Comparative Government and Politics lies in its ability to offer insights that can

improve our understanding of political systems and help solve real-world problems. Some of

the key uses include:

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1. Understanding Different Political Systems

Comparative politics helps us gain an understanding of how different governments work. By

comparing systems like democracies and autocracies, we can understand why some systems

are more effective in promoting freedom, stability, and economic prosperity. This

knowledge is crucial for policymakers, scholars, and citizens who want to understand why

some countries succeed while others struggle.

2. Learning from Other Countries

Through the comparative method, we can learn from the successes and failures of other

countries. For example, by comparing the healthcare systems of various countries,

governments can adopt best practices and avoid policies that have failed elsewhere.

Similarly, by studying electoral systems, countries can design more effective ways of

ensuring democratic representation.

3. Improving Governance

Comparative politics helps improve governance by providing insights into how policies are

implemented across different political systems. By studying what works in one country,

policymakers can improve their own governance strategies. For example, if a country is

struggling with corruption, it might look to other nations that have successfully reduced

corruption and learn from their policies and practices.

4. Predicting Political Trends

Comparative politics can help predict future political trends by analyzing how political

systems change over time. For example, by studying the history of democracy, scholars can

predict how authoritarian governments might transition to democracies, or vice versa. This

is useful for policymakers and international organizations that work to promote stability and

democracy around the world.

5. Fostering Global Cooperation

In an increasingly interconnected world, understanding how different political systems work

is vital for fostering global cooperation. By comparing the foreign policies of different

countries, scholars can identify areas of common interest and potential conflict.

Comparative studies also help international organizations like the United Nations better

understand the political challenges facing member states and develop solutions that are

tailored to different political environments.

6. Building Stronger Democracies

Comparative politics is essential for understanding how democracies work and how they can

be strengthened. By comparing successful and failed democracies, scholars can identify the

key factors that contribute to democratic stability, such as the rule of law, a free press, and

strong political institutions. This knowledge can be applied to emerging democracies or

countries undergoing political transitions.

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7. Promoting Social Justice

Comparative politics can play a role in promoting social justice by studying how different

countries address issues like inequality, human rights, and minority representation. For

example, by comparing affirmative action policies in different countries, scholars can

identify the most effective strategies for promoting equality and protecting marginalized

groups.

8. Responding to Global Challenges

Issues like climate change, terrorism, and pandemics require global cooperation and

understanding. Comparative politics helps governments understand how different political

systems respond to these global challenges and how they can work together to find

solutions. By comparing responses to the COVID-19 pandemic, for example, governments

can learn how to better prepare for future global health crises.

Conclusion

Comparative Government and Politics is a crucial field of study in political science that

allows us to understand the vast differences and similarities between political systems

across the world. Its broad scope—from political systems and institutions to public policy

and globalization—offers valuable insights into how governments function and how they

can be improved. The utility of this field lies in its ability to provide knowledge that can help

solve global challenges, promote democracy and social justice, and improve governance on

a national and international scale. By learning from the successes and failures of different

countries, we can better address the political, social, and economic issues of our own time.

2. Critically analyse the System Approach of Almond & Powell.

Ans: The systems approach developed by Gabriel Almond and Bingham Powell is a highly

influential framework in comparative political systems. It provides a method for

understanding how political systems function and adapt in different environments. Here's a

simplified analysis of their approach.

Key Features of Almond & Powell's Systems Approach

1. Definition of a Political System: Almond and Powell describe a political system as a

set of interactions and institutions through which political decisions are made. These

systems are open, which means they interact with their environment and other

systems. The environment refers to external factors like society, economy, culture,

and international pressures that affect political systems.

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2. Inputs and Outputs: The model is often described in terms of inputs and outputs.

Inputs refer to demands and supports that come from society (such as public

opinion, interest groups, or political parties). Outputs are the decisions and actions

of the government (like laws, policies, or regulations).

o Inputs: Political systems receive inputs in the form of demands (e.g., people

asking for better education) and support (like voting in elections). This is the

first step in the functioning of the political system.

o Outputs: These inputs are processed and transformed into outputs, which

are the policies, laws, and actions that the government takes. For example, a

demand for better education might result in a new policy or program being

created.

3. Feedback Loop: Almond and Powell introduced the concept of a feedback loop,

where the outputs of the political system create new inputs. For instance, a new

policy may lead to public satisfaction or dissatisfaction, which in turn becomes a new

input that the political system must handle. This continuous cycle ensures that

political systems adapt and evolve based on public responses.

4. Structural-Functional Approach: A core idea in the systems approach is structural

functionalism. According to this view, every political system has certain structures

(like the executive, legislature, judiciary, and bureaucracy) that perform specific

functions necessary for the system’s survival. These functions include rule-making

(creating laws), rule-application (enforcing laws), and rule-adjudication (interpreting

laws).

In this way, Almond and Powell's approach compares political systems by looking at how

these functions are performed in different contexts. For instance, while the United States

has a clear separation of powers, other political systems might combine these functions

differently (e.g., authoritarian regimes or parliamentary systems).

5. Adaptation and Change: One of the important contributions of Almond and Powell’s

model is its focus on adaptation. Political systems must constantly adjust to changes

in the environment (like economic shifts or public opinion) to survive. If they fail to

adapt, they risk instability or even collapse. Almond’s theory suggests that stable

political systems are those that can effectively adapt to changes by converting

demands into outputs that satisfy the public

Criticisms of Almond & Powell’s Systems Approach

Despite its widespread influence, the systems approach by Almond and Powell has also

faced significant criticism:

1. Western Bias: One of the most frequent criticisms is that the systems approach is

heavily based on Western democratic models, especially the United States and

European systems. Critics argue that it doesn't always apply well to non-Western

countries, especially developing nations where political systems may function very

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differently. For example, many African or Asian nations have systems where informal

power structures (like tribal chiefs or military rulers) play a bigger role than the

formal political institutions recognized in Almond and Powell’s model.

2. Overemphasis on Stability: The systems approach is often seen as being too focused

on stability and order, downplaying conflict and change. Critics argue that it does not

sufficiently account for situations where political systems are in flux or where

revolutionary change is occurring. In unstable or transitioning systems, the feedback

loops may be ineffective, and the model fails to explain how these systems function.

3. Simplification of Complex Political Systems: Almond and Powell's model simplifies

complex political realities by reducing them to inputs and outputs. Critics argue that

this approach ignores the nuance of political processes, especially in authoritarian or

hybrid regimes where decisions are often made behind closed doors and feedback

from the public is limited or non-existent.

4. Neglect of Power Relations: Another key criticism is that the systems approach

doesn't address power dynamics adequately. The model tends to view political

systems as neutral structures that simply process inputs into outputs. However,

critics, especially those influenced by Marxist or critical theory, argue that this

overlooks the fact that political systems are often controlled by elites who shape the

outputs to serve their interests rather than the broader public good.

5. Inapplicability to Non-Democratic Systems: Almond and Powell's model is largely

rooted in democratic political systems where public demands can lead to policy

changes through elections and feedback. In authoritarian systems, where inputs (like

public opinion) are suppressed, the systems approach struggles to explain how

decisions are made and how adaptation occurs. In such systems, feedback

mechanisms are weak or manipulated by those in power, which undermines the

assumptions of the model.

Relevance in Comparative Politics

Despite these criticisms, the systems approach remains relevant in comparative political

analysis. Its framework allows for a systematic comparison of different political systems by

focusing on the functions that they perform rather than the specific institutions. This makes

it a useful tool for analyzing how different countries solve common political problems, even

if the systems themselves are vastly different.

The approach has also evolved over time, with scholars adapting it to new contexts. For

instance, political scientists have expanded on the original model to account for the rise of

global interdependence, where political systems are increasingly influenced by international

organizations, global trade, and transnational movements.

Conclusion

Almond and Powell’s systems approach offers a structured way to analyze and compare

political systems. It highlights how political systems function by processing inputs and

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outputs, how they adapt to changes in their environment, and how various structures

perform necessary functions. While it has been criticized for oversimplification, Western

bias, and neglecting power relations, it remains a foundational theory in comparative

politics that helps scholars understand the complexities of political life across different

countries

SECTION-B

3. What do you mean by Bill of Rights? Explain the various rights granted to US citizens in

the Constitution.

Ans: Introduction to the Bill of Rights

The Bill of Rights refers to the first ten amendments to the United States Constitution. These

amendments were added to guarantee specific rights and freedoms for American citizens

and limit the power of the federal government. The Bill of Rights was created to ensure that

the government respects the basic liberties of individuals and to protect them from any

potential abuse of power.

The Bill of Rights came into effect on December 15, 1791, and is considered a vital part of

American democracy. It was drafted in response to calls from several states for greater

constitutional protection of personal freedoms. The rights outlined in these amendments

form the foundation of American civil liberties and have influenced other democratic

societies around the world.

Importance of the Bill of Rights

• The Bill of Rights is important because it safeguards citizens’ freedoms. Without it,

the government could potentially infringe upon individuals' rights in various ways.

For example, it protects freedom of speech, allowing people to express themselves

without fear of government retaliation. It also guarantees the right to a fair trial,

ensuring that everyone is treated equally under the law.

• The Bill of Rights also serves as a reminder that the government exists to serve the

people, not the other way around. It helps balance the power between the federal

government and the rights of individual citizens.

Various Rights Granted to U.S. Citizens in the Bill of Rights

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Let’s now look at each of the first ten amendments in detail to understand the various rights

they grant to U.S. citizens.

1. First Amendment: Freedom of Speech, Religion, Press, Assembly, and Petition

The First Amendment is one of the most significant parts of the Bill of Rights. It guarantees

several fundamental freedoms:

• Freedom of Speech: Citizens are free to express their opinions, even if they are

critical of the government. There are some limitations, such as speech that incites

violence or harm.

• Freedom of Religion: The government cannot establish an official religion or prevent

people from practicing their religion.

• Freedom of the Press: The media can report on events without government

censorship or control.

• Freedom of Assembly: People have the right to gather peacefully for

demonstrations, protests, or meetings.

• Right to Petition: Citizens can petition the government to change policies or laws.

This amendment is crucial in protecting individuals' rights to express themselves and hold

the government accountable.

2. Second Amendment: Right to Bear Arms

The Second Amendment guarantees the right to keep and bear arms. It was originally

included to allow citizens to form militias for self-defense. Today, this amendment is often

interpreted as allowing individuals to own firearms for personal protection, hunting, or

recreation. However, there are ongoing debates about the extent of gun rights and

government regulations.

3. Third Amendment: Protection from Quartering of Soldiers

The Third Amendment prevents the government from forcing citizens to house soldiers in

their homes during times of peace without their consent. This was included as a response to

British practices during colonial times when soldiers were often housed in private homes.

Although it is rarely relevant today, it remains an important symbol of privacy and personal

property rights.

4. Fourth Amendment: Protection from Unreasonable Searches and Seizures

The Fourth Amendment protects citizens from unreasonable searches and seizures by the

government. This means that law enforcement officers must have a warrant, supported by

probable cause, before they can search someone’s home, property, or personal belongings.

This amendment is meant to protect individuals' privacy and ensure that the government

does not abuse its power.

5. Fifth Amendment: Rights in Criminal Cases

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The Fifth Amendment includes several protections for individuals accused of crimes:

• Right to Due Process: The government must follow the law and respect individuals'

legal rights during criminal proceedings.

• Protection Against Double Jeopardy: A person cannot be tried twice for the same

crime.

• Right Against Self-Incrimination: Individuals cannot be forced to testify against

themselves in court ("pleading the Fifth").

• Eminent Domain: The government can take private property for public use but must

provide fair compensation to the property owner.

6. Sixth Amendment: Right to a Fair Trial

The Sixth Amendment guarantees the right to a fair and speedy trial in criminal cases. This

includes:

• Right to a Public Trial: Trials must be open to the public to ensure transparency.

• Right to an Impartial Jury: The accused has the right to be judged by an impartial

jury of peers.

• Right to Be Informed of Charges: Individuals have the right to know the charges

brought against them.

• Right to Confront Witnesses: The accused can confront and question witnesses who

testify against them.

• Right to a Lawyer: Individuals have the right to legal representation, and if they

cannot afford a lawyer, one will be provided for them.

These protections ensure that individuals accused of crimes are treated fairly and that the

judicial process is transparent.

7. Seventh Amendment: Right to a Trial by Jury in Civil Cases

The Seventh Amendment guarantees the right to a trial by jury in civil cases where the

amount in controversy exceeds a certain limit (currently $75,000). This amendment helps

ensure that civil disputes are resolved fairly and impartially by a group of citizens rather

than a judge alone.

8. Eighth Amendment: Protection from Cruel and Unusual Punishment

The Eighth Amendment protects individuals from cruel and unusual punishment. This

includes prohibiting excessive bail, excessive fines, and harsh punishments that are

considered inhumane or disproportionate to the crime committed. It is intended to ensure

that the criminal justice system is fair and just.

9. Ninth Amendment: Protection of Rights Not Specifically Enumerated

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The Ninth Amendment states that the rights listed in the Constitution are not the only rights

citizens have. This means that just because a right is not explicitly mentioned in the Bill of

Rights, it does not mean it doesn’t exist. This amendment is a reminder that the people

retain many rights beyond those explicitly outlined in the Constitution.

10. Tenth Amendment: Powers Reserved to the States and the People

The Tenth Amendment clarifies that any powers not granted to the federal government by

the Constitution are reserved for the states or the people. This amendment reinforces the

principle of federalism, where the federal government’s powers are limited, and states have

control over other matters.

Conclusion

The Bill of Rights is a fundamental part of the U.S. Constitution, safeguarding the basic rights

and freedoms of American citizens. These ten amendments provide important protections

in areas such as freedom of speech, the right to a fair trial, and protection from government

overreach. By limiting the power of the government, the Bill of Rights ensures that

individual liberties are protected and that the government remains accountable to the

people.

These rights have shaped the way American society functions and continue to play a crucial

role in the lives of U.S. citizens. The Bill of Rights serves as a constant reminder of the

importance of democracy, liberty, and justice in the United States.

4. Explain the powers and functions of King of England.

Ans: In the United Kingdom, the King or Queen is the head of state and a symbol of national

unity. As of 2024, the reigning monarch is King Charles III. While the British monarchy is one

of the oldest institutions in the world, the powers of the King or Queen have significantly

changed over time, becoming mostly ceremonial in modern times due to the rise of

democracy and parliamentary power. This system, known as a constitutional monarchy,

means that while the King remains an important figure, his powers are limited by law and

custom. He acts on the advice of elected officials and follows established traditions.

Let’s break down the powers and functions of the King in a simplified way:

1. Ceremonial Role

The King of England plays a largely ceremonial role in the country. His position symbolizes

the unity and continuity of the nation, and he represents Britain in various formal settings

both nationally and internationally. While the King is part of many important events, these

are primarily symbolic rather than based on real power. Here are some key ceremonial

duties:

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• Opening of Parliament: One of the most visible duties of the King is the State

Opening of Parliament. This is an annual event where the King reads a speech

written by the government, outlining the laws and policies the government plans to

introduce in the coming year. The speech is known as the "King's Speech," but it is

actually the government’s agenda that he is reading, not his own opinions or

decisions.

• State Visits and Hosting Foreign Dignitaries: The King meets foreign leaders,

diplomats, and heads of state when they visit the UK. He also makes official visits to

other countries to strengthen diplomatic ties. These visits emphasize friendship and

cooperation but do not involve political negotiations or decision-making.

• National Celebrations and Events: The King is often involved in national

celebrations, such as anniversaries, major cultural events, and remembrance services

for important events in British history. He also attends religious services, like

Christmas and Easter, which are important to many in the UK..

2. Constitutional Role

The UK follows a system known as a constitutional monarchy, where the King is bound by

the laws of the land. The power rests with elected bodies like Parliament, while the King

must act within the framework of the constitution. He plays a role in various important state

processes but does not have actual decision-making power in government policy. Some of

the main constitutional functions are:

• Appointing the Prime Minister: After a general election, it is the King’s duty to

formally appoint the Prime Minister, who is usually the leader of the political party

that has the majority in the House of Commons. This is a tradition, and the King is

expected to follow the result of the election, making it a formal duty rather than a

personal decision.

• Giving Royal Assent to Bills: For a bill (proposed law) to become an official law in the

UK, it must receive the King’s approval, known as "Royal Assent." While this sounds

like the King could stop a law from passing, in practice, Royal Assent is always given

and the King does not have the power to reject laws passed by Parliament. This is

purely ceremonial now, although it was once a real power.

• Summoning and Dissolving Parliament: The King has the formal power to summon

Parliament to meet and to dissolve it when a new election is needed. In practice,

these decisions are made by the government, and the King follows the advice of the

Prime Minister on these matters.

3. Symbol of National Unity

The King is seen as a unifying figure, representing the entire nation regardless of political

views. He does not take part in party politics and remains above the political debates that

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occur in the country. This neutrality helps maintain a sense of continuity and stability in the

country, even during times of political uncertainty.

• Non-political Role: The King does not publicly express his personal political opinions

or take sides in political disputes. This helps maintain the monarchy’s position as a

neutral and stabilizing institution in the country. Even though he meets regularly

with the Prime Minister and is kept informed of government matters, these

meetings are private, and the King does not try to influence policy decisions.

• Head of the Commonwealth: The King also serves as the head of the

Commonwealth, an association of countries that were once part of the British

Empire. This is another symbolic role that helps maintain ties between the UK and

many other nations around the world.

4. Judicial Powers

While the King was once heavily involved in legal matters, today his role in the justice

system is minimal. However, there are still some traditional and ceremonial judicial powers

linked to the monarch:

• Royal Pardons: The King has the power to issue pardons to people who have been

convicted of crimes. This power, known as the Royal Prerogative of Mercy, is rarely

used and is only given after advice from government officials.

• Fount of Justice: In the UK, justice is carried out in the King’s name. Courts are

formally known as "His Majesty’s Courts," and judges are considered to represent

the King when they make decisions. However, the King has no role in deciding court

cases.

5. Military Role

Historically, the King of England held significant power over the military, being the supreme

commander. Today, while the King still holds ceremonial titles linked to the armed forces,

the real control over military matters lies with the government. The King’s military role

includes:

• Head of the Armed Forces: The King is the formal head of the British Armed Forces,

but actual command and decisions about military actions are in the hands of the

government. The King’s role in the military is symbolic, representing the loyalty of

the armed forces to the nation and to the Crown.

• Commissioning Officers: Military officers swear allegiance to the King, and their

commissions are issued in his name. The King also participates in important military

ceremonies, such as the Remembrance Day service, where the nation honors those

who have died in wars.

6. Religious Role

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The King of England has a religious role as well, serving as the head of the Church of

England, the country’s official Christian church. This role is significant from a ceremonial and

symbolic perspective, but it does not involve religious decision-making.

• Supreme Governor of the Church of England: The King’s title as "Supreme

Governor" means that he is the formal head of the Church of England. He appoints

bishops and other church officials, but only on the advice of religious leaders and the

Prime Minister. The King’s role emphasizes the historical connection between the

monarchy and the church, but he does not interfere in the day-to-day workings of

the church.

7. Honours and Awards

The King has the power to grant various honors and awards to individuals for their

achievements and contributions to society. These honors include knighthoods, peerages,

and other prestigious titles. However, the government advises the King on who should

receive these honors.

• Honours System: The King formally appoints individuals to orders of knighthood,

such as becoming a Knight or Dame. The Honours List, published twice a year,

recognizes people for their services to the country, from arts and sciences to

charitable work and military service.

8. Influence Through Tradition and Experience

Even though the King has no real decision-making power in the government, he does

maintain influence in other ways. His experience and knowledge, gained over years of

involvement in state matters, provide valuable insight to political leaders. However, this

influence is subtle and usually behind the scenes.

• The Right to be Consulted: The King meets regularly with the Prime Minister and

other government officials to stay informed about national and international issues.

While he does not give orders or make policies, he has the right to offer advice, ask

questions, and express his views in these private meetings.

Conclusion

In summary, the powers and functions of the King of England are primarily ceremonial and

symbolic. He serves as a unifying figure, representing the continuity and stability of the

nation. His constitutional role involves formally approving government actions, but the King

does not have real governing power. The modern British monarchy is deeply rooted in

tradition, but its powers have become largely ceremonial, with real political power lying

with Parliament and elected officials. This system balances the historical significance of the

monarchy with the democratic governance of the country.

SECTION-C

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5. Discuss the law making procedure in US Congress.

Ans: The law-making process in the United States Congress is a multi-step procedure that

involves collaboration between the two chambers: the House of Representatives and the

Senate. Let’s break it down in simple terms.

Step 1: Introduction of a Bill

• The process begins when a member of Congress (either from the House or Senate)

introduces a bill. While anyone can suggest a bill, only Congress members can

formally introduce it. The bill represents a proposed law that can address a wide

range of issues.

Step 2: Committee Review

• Once the bill is introduced, it is assigned to a relevant committee. The committee,

made up of members specializing in the subject, plays a crucial role. They examine

the bill in detail, hold hearings to discuss it, and may call in experts to testify. At this

point, the committee can either accept, modify, or reject the bill.

o If a bill gains support, it moves to a subcommittee for further scrutiny and

possible amendments. A vote within the committee determines whether the

bill moves forward. If it fails at this stage, the bill is essentially dead.

Step 3: Debate in the House or Senate

• If the committee approves the bill, it moves to the floor of the chamber where it was

introduced (either the House or the Senate). Here, the entire body debates the bill.

The procedures differ between the two chambers:

o In the House of Representatives, debate time is limited, and members have

only a few minutes to speak. Amendments to the bill are also restricted.

o In the Senate, debate is more flexible. Senators can speak for as long as they

wish, and they can introduce as many amendments as needed. This is where

the filibuster can come into play—a tactic used by senators to delay the bill

by speaking for an extended period.

Step 4: Voting

• After debate, the bill is put to a vote. Members can vote "yes," "no," or "present"

(choosing not to vote). If a majority supports the bill, it passes and moves to the

other chamber (House or Senate). However, if the majority rejects the bill, it fails and

does not move forward.

Step 5: Reconciliation of Differences

• If the bill passes one chamber, it is sent to the other for approval. However, if the

second chamber makes amendments, the two versions of the bill must be

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reconciled. This is done through a conference committee made up of members from

both the House and Senate. The committee works to resolve differences and create

a unified version of the bill.

o Once both chambers agree on the final version, the bill is sent back for a final

vote in each chamber. If both chambers approve the bill in identical form, it

moves on to the next stage.

Step 6: Presidential Approval

• After passing both chambers of Congress, the bill is sent to the President. The

President has several options:

o Sign the bill into law.

o Veto the bill, sending it back to Congress with reasons for rejection.

o Take no action for ten days. If Congress is in session during this time, the bill

automatically becomes law. If Congress adjourns during this period, the bill

does not become law (a process known as a pocket veto).

Step 7: Overriding a Veto

• If the President vetoes the bill, Congress can still pass it into law by overriding the

veto. This requires a two-thirds majority vote in both the House and the Senate. If

successful, the bill becomes law despite the President’s objection.

Other Considerations:

• Filibuster: In the Senate, a filibuster can prevent a bill from moving forward by

allowing a senator to speak for an indefinite amount of time. To overcome a

filibuster, a vote of cloture is needed, requiring a three-fifths majority (60 senators)

to end the debate.

• Paygo Rules: Congress uses a system known as pay-as-you-go (or paygo), which

ensures that any new legislation that adds to the federal deficit must be balanced by

spending cuts or revenue increases elsewhere.

This process is designed to ensure that legislation is carefully considered, debated, and

amended before becoming law. It reflects the checks and balances within the U.S.

government, requiring cooperation between both chambers of Congress and the President

to enact new laws

6. What do you mean by Pressure Groups ? What is their role in British Political System?

Ans; Understanding Pressure Groups and Their Role in the British Political System

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What Are Pressure Groups?

Pressure groups are organized groups of individuals or organizations that aim to influence

government policy without seeking to hold political office themselves. Unlike political

parties, which aim to control the government and develop broad policy platforms, pressure

groups focus on specific issues. They play a significant role in modern democracies by

representing diverse societal interests and acting as a link between the public and decision-

makers.

Pressure groups operate in various ways, such as lobbying politicians, organizing public

campaigns, providing expert advice, or even participating in legal actions. Their influence

can be seen across different political issues ranging from environmental conservation to

workers' rights. In the UK, pressure groups have become integral to the political process,

often affecting decisions on public policy and contributing to the nation's democratic fabric.

Types of Pressure Groups

Pressure groups can be categorized into different types based on their goals and methods of

operation. The most common distinctions are:

1. Sectional (Interest) Groups: These groups represent the specific interests of

particular sections of society, such as professional bodies, trade unions, and business

associations. For example, the British Medical Association (BMA) represents doctors

and influences public health policy, while the Confederation of British Industry (CBI)

advocates for business interests.

2. Cause (Promotional) Groups: These groups focus on promoting specific causes or

values, such as environmental protection, human rights, or animal welfare. Examples

include Greenpeace, which campaigns for environmental sustainability, and Amnesty

International, which advocates for human rights.

3. Insider Groups: Insider groups have direct access to policymakers and are often

consulted by the government on a regular basis. These groups work closely with

officials to shape policy. For example, the National Farmers’ Union (NFU) frequently

advises the UK government on agricultural issues.

4. Outsider Groups: These groups do not have close relationships with the government

and often use more confrontational tactics, such as protests and civil disobedience,

to make their voices heard. Examples include groups like Extinction Rebellion, which

uses public demonstrations to advocate for action on climate change.

Role of Pressure Groups in the British Political System

Pressure groups play a vital role in the British political system by contributing to policy

formation, representing various interests, and enhancing democratic engagement.

1. Influencing Policy

• One of the primary roles of pressure groups is to influence government policy.

Insider groups, in particular, have significant sway as they provide expert knowledge

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and advice that can shape policy decisions. For example, the British Medical

Association (BMA) has been instrumental in influencing health policy, while the

Trades Union Congress (TUC) plays a key role in labor-related legislation.

• Lobbying is one of the main methods used by pressure groups to influence policy.

Lobbying involves direct engagement with policymakers, such as meeting with MPs,

drafting legislation, or submitting evidence to parliamentary committees. Insider

groups, because of their access, can have a substantial impact on the outcome of

policy decisions, especially on complex issues where specialized knowledge is

required.

2. Enhancing Democracy

• Pressure groups are often seen as essential to a healthy democracy because they

provide a means for citizens to participate in the political process outside of

elections. By representing a wide range of interests and causes, pressure groups give

a voice to those who may not otherwise be heard in the formal political process.

• For instance, cause groups like Amnesty International and Shelter campaign on

behalf of marginalized groups, ensuring that issues like human rights and

homelessness are not overlooked by policymakers. The representation provided by

these groups helps to ensure that the government remains responsive to a broad

spectrum of societal concerns, not just those of the electoral majority.

3. Providing Expertise

• Another key function of pressure groups is to provide specialized knowledge and

expertise to policymakers. This is particularly important in complex policy areas like

environmental regulation, healthcare, and economic policy. Groups like the Royal

Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) and the Worldwide Fund for Nature (WWF)

provide valuable insights into environmental conservation, while professional bodies

like the Law Society offer expert advice on legal matters.

• Governments often lack the resources or expertise to fully understand all the

implications of certain policies, especially in technical areas. By working with expert

groups, policymakers can make more informed decisions, which can lead to better

outcomes for society.

4. Holding the Government Accountable

• Pressure groups also play a role in holding the government accountable for its

actions. Many groups, especially outsider groups, use public campaigns, media

attention, and legal challenges to scrutinize government decisions. This can include

organizing protests, petitioning the government, or even launching legal actions to

challenge policies that they believe are unjust or harmful.

• For example, UK Uncut is a protest group that campaigns against corporate tax

avoidance and government cuts to public services. By bringing attention to these

issues through direct action, they have succeeded in raising public awareness and

pressuring the government to address their concerns.

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Strategies and Tactics

Pressure groups in the UK use a variety of strategies to achieve their objectives, including:

• Lobbying: Engaging with politicians and government officials to influence legislation.

• Public Campaigns: Using media and social platforms to raise awareness and gain

public support.

• Direct Action: Organizing protests, strikes, or civil disobedience to draw attention to

their cause.

• Legal Challenges: Taking the government to court over policies that violate rights or

legal standards.

The strategies used depend largely on the group’s access to the government. Insider groups

often focus on lobbying and providing expert advice, while outsider groups may resort to

more dramatic public campaigns and direct action.

Challenges and Criticisms

• While pressure groups contribute to the democratic process, they also face criticism.

One concern is that insider groups with close ties to the government may wield

disproportionate influence, potentially undermining democratic accountability. Large

organizations, such as the CBI or major trade unions, may have more resources and

access to decision-makers, leading to an imbalance in representation.

• Another criticism is that pressure groups do not always represent the views of their

entire membership or the broader public. For instance, large environmental groups

like Greenpeace may have highly motivated members but do not always reflect the

views of the general population.

Conclusion

Pressure groups are a crucial part of the British political system. By representing diverse

interests, providing expertise, and holding the government accountable, they enhance the

democratic process. Their influence on policy can be significant, particularly for insider

groups with close ties to the government. However, the balance of power among different

groups remains a point of debate, as larger, well-funded groups may have more sway than

smaller, grassroots organizations. Overall, pressure groups remain a vital tool for citizen

participation in British democracy.

Sources:

• Study Rocket (2023). Pressure Groups - UK Politics.

• Algor Education (2023). Role of Pressure Groups in the UK Political System.

• A Level Politics (2023). Pressure Groups in British Politics.

SECTION-D

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7. Discuss the organization and functions of US Supreme Court with special reference to its

power of Judicial Review.

Ans: The United States Supreme Court is the highest judicial body in the country and plays a

critical role in the American political system. To understand its organization and functions,

especially its power of judicial review, let’s break it down in simple terms.

1. The Organization of the U.S. Supreme Court

The U.S. Supreme Court is organized in a way that reflects its importance in the judicial

branch. It consists of:

• Nine Justices: This includes one Chief Justice and eight Associate Justices. The

number of justices is set by Congress and can change, though it has been nine for

over 150 years. The Chief Justice has some special administrative duties but

otherwise holds the same voting power as the other justices.

• Appointment: Justices are nominated by the President of the United States and

must be confirmed by the U.S. Senate. This confirmation process involves a detailed

background check, public hearings, and a final Senate vote.

• Lifetime Tenure: Justices of the Supreme Court serve for life unless they choose to

retire, resign, or are impeached and removed from office. This ensures they can

make decisions independently, without fear of losing their jobs over unpopular

rulings.

• Location and Setting: The Supreme Court has its building in Washington, D.C., where

it hears cases. It typically hears cases from October to late June or early July.

2. The Functions of the U.S. Supreme Court

The Supreme Court has several important functions:

• Interpretation of the Constitution: One of its primary jobs is to interpret the U.S.

Constitution. When disputes arise over what the Constitution means or how laws

align with it, the Supreme Court is often the final authority.

• Final Court of Appeal: The Supreme Court is the highest appellate court in the U.S.

This means that if a person or group is not satisfied with a decision made by a lower

court, they can ask the Supreme Court to review it. However, the Court doesn’t have

to hear every case; it only chooses cases that involve significant constitutional

questions.

• Judicial Review: The most famous and powerful function of the Supreme Court is its

power of judicial review, which allows it to strike down laws or government actions

that it finds unconstitutional.

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• Balance of Power: Through its decisions, the Supreme Court ensures that no branch

of government (executive, legislative, or judicial) exceeds its constitutional authority.

This protects the system of checks and balances in U.S. government.

3. The Power of Judicial Review

The concept of judicial review is not explicitly stated in the U.S. Constitution but was

established in the landmark case Marbury v. Madison in 1803. The court, under Chief Justice

John Marshall, ruled that the Supreme Court had the authority to declare laws passed by

Congress unconstitutional. This established the precedent for judicial review, making it one

of the most significant powers of the Supreme Court.

What is Judicial Review?

Judicial review is the process by which the Supreme Court (or any court) reviews the

constitutionality of laws, policies, and executive orders. If a law violates the Constitution,

the Supreme Court has the power to invalidate it.

For example, if Congress passes a law that restricts freedom of speech, the Supreme Court

can review the law and decide whether it aligns with the First Amendment of the

Constitution, which guarantees free speech. If the Court finds the law unconstitutional, it is

invalidated.

How Does Judicial Review Work?

1. Case Must be Brought: The Court does not proactively check every law passed by

Congress. Instead, a case must be brought to the Court by individuals or groups who

feel their rights have been violated by a law or government action.

2. Hearing the Case: The justices hear arguments from both sides, review legal briefs,

and sometimes ask questions during oral arguments. The case is often presented by

lawyers representing both the plaintiff (the person bringing the lawsuit) and the

defendant (often the government).

3. Deliberation and Decision: After hearing the case, the justices meet in private to

discuss it. They vote on the outcome, and one of the justices writes the majority

opinion, explaining the Court’s reasoning. If some justices disagree with the majority,

they may write dissenting opinions.

4. Decision’s Impact: Once the Court issues a ruling, it becomes the law of the land. If a

law is deemed unconstitutional, it can no longer be enforced.

4. Importance of Judicial Review

Protection of Individual Rights

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One of the most important functions of judicial review is protecting the rights of individuals

against government overreach. For example:

• In Brown v. Board of Education (1954), the Supreme Court declared that racial

segregation in public schools was unconstitutional, which was a significant step in

the fight for civil rights.

• In Roe v. Wade (1973), the Court ruled that women had a constitutional right to

privacy that protected their right to choose an abortion.

Maintaining Constitutional Balance

Judicial review ensures that the executive and legislative branches do not pass laws or take

actions that are outside the bounds of the Constitution. The Supreme Court has nullified

many laws and executive actions that it deemed inconsistent with constitutional principles.

For example:

• In United States v. Nixon (1974), the Court ruled that President Nixon had to turn

over tape recordings of conversations that were part of the Watergate scandal

investigation, rejecting Nixon's claim of executive privilege.

Preventing Tyranny of the Majority

Judicial review helps prevent what is called the tyranny of the majority—where the majority

can pass laws that oppress or harm minority groups. The Court ensures that the rights of

minorities are protected even when those rights are unpopular.

For example:

• In Obergefell v. Hodges (2015), the Court ruled that same-sex marriage is a

constitutional right, even though many states had passed laws against it.

5. Limitations on Judicial Review

While judicial review is a powerful tool, it is not without limits:

• Dependent on Cases: The Court cannot review laws on its own initiative. It must wait

for cases to be brought before it.

• Limited to Constitutional Issues: Judicial review only applies to laws or actions that

raise constitutional issues. It doesn’t apply to everyday disagreements over policy or

the wisdom of laws.

• Congress and the Constitution: If the Supreme Court strikes down a law, Congress

can attempt to amend the Constitution to bypass the ruling. This is rare but possible.

6. Criticism of Judicial Review

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Some critics argue that judicial review gives the Court too much power over the democratic

process. Since the justices are not elected, they have significant influence over laws passed

by elected representatives. Some feel that this undermines democracy.

Others believe that judicial review is necessary to protect individual rights and maintain the

rule of law. Without it, Congress or the President could pass laws that violate constitutional

rights without any meaningful check.

7. Conclusion

The U.S. Supreme Court plays a critical role in interpreting the Constitution and ensuring

that laws and government actions do not violate constitutional principles. Through its power

of judicial review, it has the authority to strike down unconstitutional laws, protect

individual rights, and maintain the balance of power between the branches of government.

This power, established in Marbury v. Madison, has become one of the cornerstones of the

U.S. legal and political system, making the Supreme Court one of the most influential bodies

in the country.

8. British Political system is Unitary system. Elaborate it.

Ans: A unitary political system is a system of government where all the powers are

concentrated at the central level, unlike a federal system where power is shared between

central and regional governments. In the case of the United Kingdom, its political system is a

unitary system, which means the central government holds the majority of the power and

has the ability to control and delegate responsibilities to lower levels of government, such

as Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland.

Key Features of the British Unitary System

1. Centralized Authority: In a unitary system like the UK, the central government based

in Westminster (London) holds the primary decision-making power. This means that

laws, policies, and political decisions affecting the whole country are typically made

by the Parliament in London. Local governments, such as county and city councils, or

devolved administrations like the Scottish Parliament, may have some authority, but

their powers are delegated by the central government.

2. Devolution and its Limits: Although the UK is a unitary state, over the years, there

has been a process called devolution, where powers have been transferred from the

central government to regional governments, such as:

o The Scottish Parliament in Edinburgh,

o The Welsh Senedd (Parliament) in Cardiff,

o The Northern Ireland Assembly in Belfast.

However, it’s important to note that devolution in the UK does not mean federalism. The

central government still holds the ultimate power and can, in theory, revoke these devolved

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powers. For example, while Scotland has control over education, health, and some other

areas, Westminster retains authority over defense, foreign affairs, and other key national

matters.

3. Parliamentary Sovereignty: A fundamental concept in the British unitary system is

parliamentary sovereignty. This means that Parliament (the UK legislature) is the

supreme legal authority, capable of creating or repealing any law. No other body,

whether it be regional parliaments or courts, can override Parliament’s decisions.

This makes the UK Parliament the ultimate authority in the British political system.

4. Role of the Monarch: The UK is a constitutional monarchy, meaning that while there

is a monarch (currently King Charles III), their powers are mostly ceremonial. Real

political power is exercised by elected officials, primarily the Prime Minister and

Parliament. The monarch's role in the unitary system is largely symbolic, such as

giving royal assent to laws passed by Parliament, but they do not hold actual

decision-making power.

Advantages of a Unitary System

1. Consistency in Policy and Law: Since the central government holds most of the

power, laws and policies are consistent throughout the country. This can make

governance simpler and more streamlined, as there are fewer levels of government

involved in decision-making. For instance, issues like national defense, foreign

relations, and taxation are uniformly handled by the UK government, which ensures

that all citizens are subject to the same rules.

2. Efficiency in Governance: In a unitary system, decision-making can be quicker and

more efficient since the central government does not have to consult or negotiate

with regional governments for every major decision. This can be especially useful in

times of national crisis or emergency, where swift and decisive action is required. In

contrast, a federal system may face delays due to the need for consultation between

different levels of government.

3. Strong National Unity: By having a strong central government, a unitary system can

foster a sense of national unity and coherence. Citizens across the country are

subject to the same laws, and policies are designed to benefit the entire nation,

rather than favoring specific regions. This can help prevent regional divisions or

conflicts, as the central government has the authority to ensure equitable treatment

for all parts of the country.

Disadvantages of a Unitary System

1. Over-centralization of Power: One potential drawback of a unitary system is the risk

of over-centralization. When too much power is concentrated in the central

government, it can lead to a lack of responsiveness to local needs and concerns.

Local governments may feel powerless, and citizens in regions far from the capital

might feel disconnected from decision-makers. In the UK, this has sometimes been a

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concern, particularly in Scotland and Northern Ireland, where there are strong

regional identities.

2. Devolution Tensions: Although the UK has devolved powers to Scotland, Wales, and

Northern Ireland, tensions sometimes arise over the distribution of power. For

example, the Scottish National Party (SNP) has argued for greater autonomy or even

independence for Scotland, especially after the UK voted to leave the European

Union (Brexit). The tension between the central and regional governments can lead

to political instability and debates over the future of the union.

3. Risk of Disconnection: Since the central government holds so much power, there’s a

risk that local issues and regional diversity might be overlooked. A unitary

government might not always have the same level of understanding or concern for

local problems as regional or local governments would. For example, policies that

work well for London might not be as effective for more rural parts of the UK, like

Cornwall or the Scottish Highlands.

Devolution in Practice: A Closer Look

While the UK remains a unitary state, the process of devolution has significantly reshaped

the political landscape, particularly in Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland.

• Scotland: The Scottish Parliament, established in 1999, has significant powers over

education, health, and justice. However, matters like defense and foreign policy are

still controlled by the UK Parliament. The push for Scottish independence remains

strong, with the 2014 referendum narrowly voting against it, but the issue remains a

key part of political debate, especially after Brexit.

• Wales: Wales has a devolved legislature called the Senedd (Welsh Parliament),

which handles areas like health, education, and local government. Over time, the

Welsh government has gained more power, but like Scotland, it still operates within

the constraints of the unitary system.

• Northern Ireland: The Northern Ireland Assembly has power over a range of local

issues, but its governance has often been affected by political tensions between

Unionists and Nationalists. The Good Friday Agreement of 1998 helped establish a

power-sharing arrangement, but the assembly has been suspended several times

due to disagreements between political parties.

Despite devolution, the unitary nature of the UK remains clear, as Westminster ultimately

retains the power to amend or revoke the devolved powers. This has led to ongoing debates

about whether the UK should move toward a more federal system or continue with the

current balance of power.

The Unitary System in the Context of Brexit

The UK’s decision to leave the European Union (Brexit) has highlighted some of the

complexities of the unitary system. Brexit has led to disputes between the UK government

and the devolved administrations, particularly Scotland, where the majority of voters

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wanted to remain in the EU. The Scottish government has argued for greater powers in

areas like immigration and trade, which were previously governed by the EU. This has

intensified discussions about the future of the UK as a unitary state, with some arguing that

Brexit has increased the likelihood of Scottish independence.

Conclusion

The British unitary system has historically provided stability and efficiency, with centralized

control allowing for consistent governance across the UK. However, the process of

devolution, as well as the evolving political landscape following Brexit, has posed new

challenges for this system. While the central government retains ultimate authority, the

growing powers of devolved governments and the increasing demands for autonomy,

particularly in Scotland, suggest that the future of the UK’s unitary system may involve

further changes. The balance between central control and regional autonomy continues to

be a key issue in British politics, and the outcome of these debates will shape the future of

governance in the UK.

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